Nutrition and Rheumatoid Arthritis in the 'Omics' Era.

Modern high-throughput 'omics' science tools (including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics and microbiomics) are currently being applied to nutritional sciences to unravel the fundamental processes of health effects ascribed to particular nutrients in humans and to contribute to more precise nutritional advice. Diet and food components are key environmental factors that interact with the genome, transcriptome, proteome, metabolome and the microbiota, and this life-long interplay defines health and diseases state of the individual. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease featured by a systemic immune-inflammatory response, in genetically susceptible individuals exposed to environmental triggers, including diet. In recent years increasing evidences suggested that nutritional factors and gut microbiome have a central role in RA risk and progression. The aim of this review is to summarize the main and most recent applications of 'omics' technologies in human nutrition and in RA research, examining the possible influences of some nutrients and nutritional patterns on RA pathogenesis, following a nutrigenomics approach. The opportunities and challenges of novel 'omics technologies' in the exploration of new avenues in RA and nutritional research to prevent and manage RA will be also discussed.

Effect of Incorporating Genetic Testing Results into Nutrition Counseling and Care on Dietary Intake: An Evidence Analysis Center Systematic Review-Part I.

Consumer interest in personalized nutrition based on nutrigenetic testing is growing. Recently, multiple, randomized controlled trials have sought to understand whether incorporating genetic information into dietary counseling alters dietary outcomes. The objective of this systematic review was to examine how incorporating genetic information into nutrition counseling and care, compared to an alternative intervention or control group, impacts dietary outcomes. This is the first of a 2-part systematic review series. Part II reports anthropometric, biochemical, and disease-specific outcomes. Peer-reviewed randomized controlled trials were identified through a systematic literature search of multiple databases, screened for eligibility, and critically reviewed and synthesized. Conclusion statements were graded to determine quality of evidence for each dietary outcome reported. Reported outcomes include intake of total energy and macronutrients, micronutrients, foods, food groups, food components (added sugar, caffeine, and alcohol), and composite diet scores. Ten articles representing 8 unique randomized controlled trials met inclusion criteria. Of 15 conclusion statements (evidence grades: Weak to Moderate), 13 concluded there was no significant effect of incorporating genetic information into nutrition counseling/care on dietary outcomes. Limited data suggested that carriers of higher-risk gene variants were more likely than carriers of low-risk gene variants to significantly reduce intake of sodium and alcohol in response to nutrition counseling that incorporated genetic results. Included studies differed in quality, selected genetic variants, timing and intensity of intervention, sample size, dietary assessment tools, and population characteristics. Therefore, strong conclusions could not be drawn. Collaboration between the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and professional nutrigenetic societies would likely prove valuable in prioritizing which genetic variants and targeted nutrition messages have the most potential to alter dietary outcomes in a given patient subpopulation and, thus, should be the targets of future research.

Effect of Incorporating Genetic Testing Results into Nutrition Counseling and Care on Health Outcomes: An Evidence Analysis Center Systematic Review-Part II.

In recent years, literature examining implementation of nutritional genomics into clinical practice has increased, including publication of several randomized controlled trials (RCTs). This systematic review addressed the following question: In children and adults, what is the effect of incorporating results of genetic testing into nutrition counseling and care compared with an alternative intervention or control group, on nutrition-related health outcomes? A literature search of MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and other databases was conducted for peer-reviewed RCTs published from January 2008 until December 2018. An international workgroup consisting of registered dietitian nutritionists, systematic review methodologists, and evidence analysts screened and reviewed articles, summarized data, conducted meta-analyses, and graded conclusion statements. The second in a two-part series, this article specifically summarizes evidence from RCTs that examined health outcomes (ie, quality of life, disease incidence and prevention of disease progression, or mortality), intermediate health outcomes (ie, anthropometric measures, body composition, or relevant laboratory measures routinely collected in practice), and adverse events as reported by study authors. Analysis of 11 articles from nine RCTs resulted in 16 graded conclusion statements. Among participants with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, a diet tailored to genotype resulted in a greater reduction of percent body fat compared with a customary diet for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. However, meta-analyses for the outcomes of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, body mass index, and weight yielded null results. Heterogeneity between studies and low certainty of evidence precluded development of strong conclusions about the incorporation of genetic information into nutrition practice. Although there are still relatively few well-designed RCTs to inform integration of genetic information into the Nutrition Care Process, the field of nutritional genomics is evolving rapidly, and gaps in the literature identified by this systematic review can inform future studies.

Nutrigenetics/Nutrigenomics, Personalized Nutrition, and Precision Healthcare.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The purposes of the present review are to examine the emergence of nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics, to analyze the relationship between nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics, to explore the impact of nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics on healthcare with respect to noncommunicable diseases, and to discuss the challenges facing the implementation of nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics within healthcare. RECENT FINDINGS: Nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics is certainly a thriving specialty given the sharp increase of publications over the last two decades. The relationship between nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics is proposed as complementary. The current clinical and research literature supports the significant impact nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics has on treating and preventing noncommunicable diseases. Although several challenges face the implementation of nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics into healthcare, they are not insurmountable. Nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics plays an important role not only in treating diseases and illnesses but also in promoting health and wellness through both basic and clinical research; and it is critical for the future of both personalized nutrition and precision healthcare.

Assessing the effectiveness of actionable nutrigenomics and lifestyle genomics interventions for weight management in clinical practice: A critical, scoping review with directions for future research.

BACKGROUND: The use of nutrigenomics and lifestyle genomics in clinical practice has the potential to optimize weight-related outcomes for patients. AIM: A scoping review was conducted to summarize and evaluate the current body of knowledge related to the effectiveness of providing DNA-based lifestyle advice on weight-related outcomes, with the aim of providing direction for future research. METHOD: Primary studies were included if they were written in English, evaluated weight-related and/or body mass index and/or body composition outcomes, and provided participants with an actionable genetic-based lifestyle intervention; interventions that only provided information on genetic risk for diseases/conditions were excluded. Data was extracted from each article meeting inclusion criteria (N=3) and the studies were critically appraised for methodological limitations. RESULTS: Research in this area is promising, but limited. Specific limitations relate to study designs, the nature of the recommendations provided to participants, small (underpowered) sample sizes, the use of self-reported weight/BMI data and lack of consideration of important confounding factors. CONCLUSIONS: Therefore, the effectiveness of nutrigenomics and lifestyle genomics interventions for weight management in clinical practice cannot yet be conclusively determined. Recommendations for future research are detailed in the present manuscript.

Nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics: ready for clinical use or still a way to go?

Nutritional Genomics or nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics is an emerging area of research aiming to delineate the interplay between nutrients intake and the reciprocal pathologies with the human genome. Coupled with other omics disciplines, such as metabolomics, proteomics and transcriptomics, nutrigenomics aspires to individualize nutrition, reminiscent of pharmacogenomics and the individualization of drug use. Here, we provide an overview of a session focused on nutrigenomics, organized in conjunction with the Panhellenic Bioscientists Association during the First Greek National Personalised Medicine Conference in Athens, Greece on 15 December 2019.

Nutrigenética, nutrigenómica y dieta mediterránea: una nueva visión para la gastronomía / Nutrigenetics, nutrigenomics and Mediterranean diet: a new vision for gastronomy

Tanto la nutrigenética como la nutrigenómica son disciplinas dentro de la denominada genómica nutricional, que, en sentido amplio, proporciona el marco de integración de las distintas ómicas con las ciencias de la alimentación y nutrición. Tras décadas de estudios nutrigenéticos y nutrigenómicos, se dispone de una cantidad relevante de conocimientos para plantear su aplicación en la denominada nutrición de precisión. Esta nueva disciplina plantea que hay que tener en cuenta las características particulares de la persona para proporcionar la mejor dieta para prevenir o tratar la enfermedad. Los marcadores ómicos se consideran relevantes en dicha personalización. Existen muchos alimentos, nutrientes y patrones de dieta que se han investigado en nutrigenética y nutrigenómica; entre ellos, podemos mencionar el patrón de dieta mediterránea. A pesar de la heterogeneidad en la definición de dieta mediterránea, existen varios estudios que muestran que la dieta mediterránea puede interaccionar con el genoma, disminuyendo el riesgo de enfermedad en las personas genéticamente más susceptibles. Paralelamente, algunos estudios están mostrando los mecanismos por los que la dieta mediterránea puede ejercer este efecto protector. Conocer con más detalle la susceptibilidad genética, los mecanismos epigenéticos, la influencia del metaboloma y de otras ómicas puede ser relevante en gastronomía, entendida como la práctica del arte de elegir, cocinar y comer los alimentos. Esta influencia ómica no solo podemos encontrarla en los fenotipos de salud-enfermedad, sino también en la percepción del sabor y del olor de los alimentos (las preferencias por determinadas comidas). Todo ello, bien integrado, puede contribuir al incremento del disfrute a la vez que se sigue una alimentación saludable

Both nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics are disciplines that form part of what is known as Nutritional Genomics, which, in the widest sense, provides the framework for integrating different omics with food and nutrition sciences. After decades of nutrigenetic and nutrigenomic studies, there is a large enough amount of knowledge to consider its application in so-called precision nutrition. This new discipline seeks to take into account the particular characteristics of the individual in order to provide the best diet for preventing or treating a disease. Omic markers are considered to be of importance to that personalization. There are many foods, nutrients and dietary patterns that have been researched in nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics, including the Mediterranean Diet pattern. Despite heterogeneity in defining the Mediterranean Diet, there are various studies that show that the Mediterranean Diet can interact with the genome, so reducing the risk of disease in the most genetically susceptible individuals. Likewise, several studies have recently been revealing the mechanisms through which the Mediterranean Diet may exercise this protective effect. Understanding genetic susceptibility, epigenetic mechanisms, the influence of the metabolome and other omics in more detail may be important in gastronomy, understood as the practice of selecting, cooking and eating food. This omic influence can not only be found in health-disease phenotypes, but also in food taste and smell perception and preferences for certain dishes. Considering all of these together may contribute to an increase in enjoying and at the same time pursuing healthy eating

Biotecnología de alimentos: de los transgénicos a la nutrición personalizada / Food biotechnology: from genetically modified foods to personalized nutrition

La biotecnología de alimentos es un arma de mejora milenaria en la agroalimentación. Buena parte de lo que comemos ha sufrido mejora biotecnológica, aunque muchas veces lo desconozcamos. La última generación de esta mejora son los alimentos transgénicos, sujetos a una gran controversia social, fundamentalmente en la Unión Europea. En la actualidad, su uso implica un menor impacto ambiental y una mayor ganancia para el agricultor, por lo que, gusten o no, muy probablemente se impondrán. Aún así, no es la única posibilidad de uso de la biotecnología en la agroalimentación. En este sentido, el empleo de la genómica abre posibilidades excitantes. La secuenciación de genomas está permitiendo adquirir un mayor conocimiento molecular de las materias primas de los alimentos, lo que sin duda favorecerá el diseño futuro de nuevos alimentos más seguros y eficaces. Pero, además, la genómica permite estudiar los microrganismos presentes en el cuerpo humano. Aquellos que pueblan el tracto digestivo, el llamado microbioma digestivo, son particularmente interesantes para nuestra alimentación. Estamos empezando a entender su papel en la salud y en la enfermedad. Con ello se abren posibilidades de intervención nutricional con probióticos y prebióticos que marcarán en buena medida el futuro de la alimentación y la salud

Food biotechnology is a weapon of millenary improvement in the agri-food sector. Most of our foods have been improved using biotechnological tools, although many times we do not know it. The latest generation of this update are the so-called genetically modified foods that are subject to great social controversy, mainly in the European Union. At present, its use implies a lower environmental impact and a greater income for the farmer, for what most probably they will prevail. Still, it is not the only possibility of using biotechnology in the agri-food sector. In this sense, the use of genomics opens up exciting possibilities. The sequencing of genomes is allowed in the knowledge of the raw materials of foods. But in addition, genomics is studying the microorganisms present in the human body. Those that populate the digestive tract, the so-called gut microbiome, is very important for our diet. We are beginning to understand their role in health and disease. This opens possibilities of nutritional intervention with probiotics and prebiotics that largely mark the future of food and health

Retos actuales de la investigación en nutrición aplicada: ¿persona o población? / Current challenges of nutrition applied research: ¿person or population?

Durante la segunda mitad del siglo xx la nutrición se ha desarrollado de forma acelerada, basada en los conocimientos de ciencias básicas, como la bioquímica y la fisiología, y de ciencias aplicadas, como la epidemiología y la salud pública. En ese periodo se han establecido recomendaciones de nutrientes para determinados segmentos de población según su sexo, edad y condición fisiológica. No obstante, a pesar de los conocimientos generados, la desnutrición, tanto por defecto (deficiencia proteico-energética y de micronutrientes) como por exceso (sobrepeso y obesidad), representa una lacra para numerosos países. En septiembre de 2015, la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas estableció los denominados Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) con el fin de "garantizar una vida sana y promover el bienestar para todos en todas las edades", y se determinaron una serie de metas específicas para la nutrición materna, la de los lactantes y la de los niños de corta edad, así como para la prevención y control de las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles. A pesar de que existen recomendaciones de ingesta de nutrientes a nivel poblacional, los individuos responden de forma diferente a las intervenciones en los estilos de vida a causa de que sus variantes génicas influyen en la absorción y utilización metabólica de los nutrientes. Es decir, la respuesta de un individuo a la ingesta de alimentos (y, por lo tanto, de los nutrientes) resulta de la interacción de factores metabólicos, genéticos, ambientales y sociales. La genómica nutricional es la ciencia que trata de facilitar una explicación a nivel molecular de cómo los nutrientes y otros componentes de los alimentos interaccionan con el conjunto de genes de un individuo y su repercusión sobre el estado de salud. Las herramientas de las ciencias ómicas (genómica, epigenómica, transcriptómica, proteómica y metabolómica) aplicadas a la nutrición posibilitan el desarrollo de la genómica nutricional. Mientras que el concepto de "nutrición personalizada" se refiere a la adaptación de la dieta a las necesidades y preferencias individuales, la "nutrición de precisión" predice si un individuo concreto va a responder a determinados nutrientes y patrones dietéticos, de forma que la utilización de la información genética y fenotípica del individuo puede contribuir a la prevención de la enfermedad. Uno de los mayores retos de la nutrición es posibilitar una nutrición de precisión basada en el conocimiento para contribuir así a mejorar la salud de la población y disminuir la incidencia de enfermedades crónicas

During the last half of the 20th century, Nutrition has evolved in a quick way based on the knowledge of both basic sciences as Biochemistry and Physiology and applied sciences as Epidemiology and Public Health. In that period the nutritional requirements for different population groups grouped by sex, age and physiological conditions have been established. However, in spite of the enormous knowledge in food and nutritional sciences, malnutrition by nutrient deficiencies (protein-energy undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies) and by excess of nutrient intake (overweight and obesity) continues being a critical burden and challenge for numerous countries. In September 2015, the General Assembly of the United Nations established the "Sustainable Development Goals" with the aim of "to warrant a healthy life and promote the welfare for all in all ages", and defined a number of targets to reach maternal, infant and childhood nutrition, as well as to prevent non-communicable chronic diseases. Even though there are food intake guidelines and general recommendations for population nutrient intakes, individuals respond differently to lifestyle interventions depending on their genetic variants, which in turn influence the absorption and metabolism of nutrients. Indeed, the response of an individual to food intake and nutrients is the result of the interaction of a number of metabolic, genetic, environmental and social factors. Nutritional genomics is the science trying to facilitate an explanation at molecular levels of how nutrients and other bioactive food components interact with the genes of an individual and their effects on health. The new "omics" science tools (genomics, epigenomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics) applied to nutrition is currently allowing the development of nutritional genomics. While "personalized nutrition" refers to the adaptation of the diet to individual needs and preferences, "precision nutrition" predicts whether an individual is responding or not to specific nutrients and food and dietary patterns in such a way they can contribute to the prevention of disease based on the genetic information and phenotype of that particular individual. One of the biggest challenges of nutrition today is to make possible precision nutrition in order to contribute to the improvement of the population and decrease the burden of non-communicable chronic diseases

[Nutrigenetics, nutrigenomics and Mediterranean diet: a new vision for gastronomy]. / Nutrigenética, nutrigenómica y dieta mediterránea: una nueva visión para la gastronomía.

Both nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics are disciplines that form part of what is known as Nutritional Genomics, which, in the widest sense, provides the framework for integrating different omics with food and nutrition sciences. After decades of nutrigenetic and nutrigenomic studies, there is a large enough amount of knowledge to consider its application in so-called precision nutrition. This new discipline seeks to take into account the particular characteristics of the individual in order to provide the best diet for preventing or treating a disease. Omic markers are considered to be of importance to that personalization. There are many foods, nutrients and dietary patterns that have been researched in nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics, including the Mediterranean Diet pattern. Despite heterogeneity in defining the Mediterranean Diet, there are various studies that show that the Mediterranean Diet can interact with the genome, so reducing the risk of disease in the most genetically susceptible individuals. Likewise, several studies have recently been revealing the mechanisms through which the Mediterranean Diet may exercise this protective effect. Understanding genetic susceptibility, epigenetic mechanisms, the influence of the metabolome and other omics in more detail may be important in gastronomy, understood as the practice of selecting, cooking and eating food. This omic influence can not only be found in health-disease phenotypes, but also in food taste and smell perception and preferences for certain dishes. Considering all of these together may contribute to an increase in enjoying and at the same time pursuing healthy eating.

Tanto la nutrigenética como la nutrigenómica son disciplinas dentro de la denominada genómica nutricional, que, en sentido amplio, proporciona el marco de integración de las distintas ómicas con las ciencias de la alimentación y nutrición.Tras décadas de estudios nutrigenéticos y nutrigenómicos, se dispone de una cantidad relevante de conocimientos para plantear su aplicación en la denominada nutrición de precisión. Esta nueva disciplina plantea que hay que tener en cuenta las características particulares de la persona para proporcionar la mejor dieta para prevenir o tratar la enfermedad. Los marcadores ómicos se consideran relevantes en dicha personalización. Existen muchos alimentos, nutrientes y patrones de dieta que se han investigado en nutrigenética y nutrigenómica; entre ellos, podemos mencionar el patrón de dieta mediterránea.A pesar de la heterogeneidad en la definición de dieta mediterránea, existen varios estudios que muestran que la dieta mediterránea puede interaccionar con el genoma, disminuyendo el riesgo de enfermedad en las personas genéticamente más susceptibles. Paralelamente, algunos estudios están mostrando los mecanismos por los que la dieta mediterránea puede ejercer este efecto protector. Conocer con más detalle la susceptibilidad genética, los mecanismos epigenéticos, la influencia del metaboloma y de otras ómicas puede ser relevante en gastronomía, entendida como la práctica del arte de elegir, cocinar y comer los alimentos.Esta influencia ómica no solo podemos encontrarla en los fenotipos de salud-enfermedad, sino también en la percepción del sabor y del olor de los alimentos (las preferencias por determinadas comidas). Todo ello, bien integrado, puede contribuir al incremento del disfrute a la vez que se sigue una alimentación saludable.

[Food biotechnology: from genetically modified foods to personalized nutrition]. / Biotecnología de alimentos: de los transgénicos a la nutrición personalizada.

Food biotechnology is a weapon of millenary improvement in the agri-food sector. Most of our foods have been improved using biotechnological tools, although many times we do not know it. The latest generation of this update are the so-called genetically modified foods that are subject to great social controversy, mainly in the European Union. At present, its use implies a lower environmental impact and a greater income for the farmer, for what most probably they will prevail. Still, it is not the only possibility of using biotechnology in the agri-food sector. In this sense, the use of genomics opens up exciting possibilities. The sequencing of genomes is allowed in the knowledge of the raw materials of foods. But in addition, genomics is studying the microorganisms present in the human body. Those that populate the digestive tract, the so-called gut microbiome, is very important for our diet. We are beginning to understand their role in health and disease. This opens possibilities of nutritional intervention with probiotics and prebiotics that largely mark the future of food and health.

La biotecnología de alimentos es un arma de mejora milenaria en la agroalimentación. Buena parte de lo que comemos ha sufrido mejora biotecnológica, aunque muchas veces lo desconozcamos. La última generación de esta mejora son los alimentos transgénicos, sujetos a una gran controversia social, fundamentalmente en la Unión Europea. En la actualidad, su uso implica un menor impacto ambiental y una mayor ganancia para el agricultor, por lo que, gusten o no, muy probablemente se impondrán. Aún así, no es la única posibilidad de uso de la biotecnología en la agroalimentación.En este sentido, el empleo de la genómica abre posibilidades excitantes. La secuenciación de genomas está permitiendo adquirir un mayor conocimiento molecular de las materias primas de los alimentos, lo que sin duda favorecerá el diseño futuro de nuevos alimentos más seguros y eficaces. Pero, además, la genómica permite estudiar los microrganismos presentes en el cuerpo humano. Aquellos que pueblan el tracto digestivo, el llamado microbioma digestivo, son particularmente interesantes para nuestra alimentación. Estamos empezando a entender su papel en la salud y en la enfermedad. Con ello se abren posibilidades de intervención nutricional con probióticos y prebióticos que marcarán en buena medida el futuro de la alimentación y la salud.

[Current challenges of nutrition applied research: ¿person or population?] / Retos actuales de la investigación en nutrición aplicada: ¿persona o población?

During the last half of the 20th century, Nutrition has evolved in a quick way based on the knowledge of both basic sciences as Biochemistry and Physiology and applied sciences as Epidemiology and Public Health. In that period the nutritional requirements for different population groups grouped by sex, age and physiological conditions have been established. However, in spite of the enormous knowledge in food and nutritional sciences, malnutrition by nutrient deficiencies (protein-energy undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies) and by excess of nutrient intake (overweight and obesity) continues being a critical burden and challenge for numerous countries. In September 2015, the General Assembly of the United Nations established the "Sustainable Development Goals" with the aim of "to warrant a healthy life and promote the welfare for all in all ages", and defined a number of targets to reach maternal, infant and childhood nutrition, as well as to prevent non-communicable chronic diseases. Even though there are food intake guidelines and general recommendations for population nutrient intakes, individuals respond differently to lifestyle interventions depending on their genetic variants, which in turn influence the absorption and metabolism of nutrients. Indeed, the response of an individual to food intake and nutrients is the result of the interaction of a number of metabolic, genetic, environmental and social factors. Nutritional genomics is the science trying to facilitate an explanation at molecular levels of how nutrients and other bioactive food components interact with the genes of an individual and their effects on health. The new "omics" science tools (genomics, epigenomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics) applied to nutrition is currently allowing the development of nutritional genomics. While "personalized nutrition" refers to the adaptation of the diet to individual needs and preferences, "precision nutrition" predicts whether an individual is responding or not to specific nutrients and food and dietary patterns in such a way they can contribute to the prevention of disease based on the genetic information and phenotype of that particular individual. One of the biggest challenges of nutrition today is to make possible precision nutrition in order to contribute to the improvement of the population and decrease the burden of non-communicable chronic diseases.

Durante la segunda mitad del siglo xx la nutrición se ha desarrollado de forma acelerada, basada en los conocimientos de ciencias básicas, como la bioquímica y la fisiología, y de ciencias aplicadas, como la epidemiología y la salud pública. En ese periodo se han establecido recomendaciones de nutrientes para determinados segmentos de población según su sexo, edad y condición fisiológica. No obstante, a pesar de los conocimientos generados, la desnutrición, tanto por defecto (deficiencia proteico-energética y de micronutrientes) como por exceso (sobrepeso y obesidad), representa una lacra para numerosos países. En septiembre de 2015, la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas estableció los denominados Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) con el fin de "garantizar una vida sana y promover el bienestar para todos en todas las edades", y se determinaron una serie de metas específicas para la nutrición materna, la de los lactantes y la de los niños de corta edad, así como para la prevención y control de las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles. A pesar de que existen recomendaciones de ingesta de nutrientes a nivel poblacional, los individuos responden de forma diferente a las intervenciones en los estilos de vida a causa de que sus variantes génicas influyen en la absorción y utilización metabólica de los nutrientes. Es decir, la respuesta de un individuo a la ingesta de alimentos (y, por lo tanto, de los nutrientes) resulta de la interacción de factores metabólicos, genéticos, ambientales y sociales. La genómica nutricional es la ciencia que trata de facilitar una explicación a nivel molecular de cómo los nutrientes y otros componentes de los alimentos interaccionan con el conjunto de genes de un individuo y su repercusión sobre el estado de salud. Las herramientas de las ciencias ómicas (genómica, epigenómica, transcriptómica, proteómica y metabolómica) aplicadas a la nutrición posibilitan el desarrollo de la genómica nutricional. Mientras que el concepto de "nutrición personalizada" se refiere a la adaptación de la dieta a las necesidades y referencias individuales, la "nutrición de precisión" predice si un individuo concreto va a responder a determinados nutrientes y patrones dietéticos, de forma que la utilización de la información genética y fenotípica del individuo puede contribuir a la prevención de la enfermedad. Uno de los mayores retos de la nutrición es posibilitar una nutrición de precisión basada en el conocimiento para contribuir así a mejorar la salud de la población y disminuir la incidencia de enfermedades crónicas.

Translational Aspects of Diet and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a spectrum of diseases ranging from simple steatosis without inflammation or fibrosis to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Despite the strong association between dietary factors and NAFLD, no dietary animal model of NAFLD fully recapitulates the complex metabolic and histological phenotype of the disease, although recent models show promise. Although animal models have significantly contributed to our understanding of human diseases, they have been less successful in accurate translation to predict effective treatment strategies. We discuss strategies to overcome this challenge, in particular the adoption of big data approaches combining clinical phenotype, genomic heterogeneity, transcriptomics, and metabolomics changes to identify the ideal NAFLD animal model for a given scientific question or to test a given drug. We conclude by noting that novel big data approaches may help to bridge the translational gap for selecting dietary models of NAFLD.

Precision Nutrition for Targeting Lipid Metabolism in Colorectal Cancer.

Cancer is a multistage and multifactorial condition with genetic and environmental factors modulating tumorogenesis and disease progression. Nevertheless, cancer is preventable, as one third of cancer deaths could be avoided by modifying key risk factors. Nutrients can directly affect fundamental cellular processes and are considered among the most important risk factors in colorectal cancer (CRC). Red and processed meat, poultry consumption, fiber, and folate are the best-known diet components that interact with colorectal cancer susceptibility. In addition, the direct association of an unhealthy diet with obesity and dysbiosis opens new routes in the understanding of how daily diet nutrients could influence cancer prognosis. In the "omics" era, traditional nutrition has been naturally evolved to precision nutrition where technical developments have contributed to a more accurate discipline. In this sense, genomic and transcriptomic studies have been extensively used in precision nutrition approaches. However, the relation between CRC carcinogenesis and nutrition factors is more complex than originally expected. Together with classical diet-nutrition-related genes, nowadays, lipid-metabolism-related genes have acquired relevant interest in precision nutrition studies. Lipids regulate very diverse cellular processes from ATP synthesis and the activation of essential cell-signaling pathways to membrane organization and plasticity. Therefore, a wide range of tumorogenic steps can be influenced by lipid metabolism, both in primary tumours and distal metastasis. The extent to which genetic variants, together with the intake of specific dietary components, affect the risk of CRC is currently under investigation, and new therapeutic or preventive applications must be explored in CRC models. In this review, we will go in depth into the study of co-occurring events, which orchestrate CRC tumorogenesis and are essential for the evolution of precision nutrition paradigms. Likewise, we will discuss the application of precision nutrition approaches to target lipid metabolism in CRC.

Knowing your genes: does this impact behaviour change?

It is postulated that knowledge of genotype may be more powerful than other types of personalised information in terms of motivating behaviour change. However, there is also a danger that disclosure of genetic risk may promote a fatalistic attitude and demotivate individuals. The original concept of personalised nutrition (PN) focused on genotype-based tailored dietary advice; however, PN can also be delivered based on assessment of dietary intake and phenotypic measures. Whilst dietitians currently provide PN advice based on diet and phenotype, genotype-based PN advice is not so readily available. The aim of this review is to examine the evidence for genotype-based personalised information on motivating behaviour change, and factors which may affect the impact of genotype-based personalised advice. Recent findings in PN will also be discussed, with respect to a large European study, Food4Me, which investigated the impact of varying levels of PN advice on motivating behaviour change. The researchers reported that PN advice resulted in greater dietary changes compared with general healthy eating advice, but no additional benefit was observed for PN advice based on phenotype and genotype information. Within Food4Me, work from our group revealed that knowledge of MTHFR genotype did not significantly improve intakes of dietary folate. In general, evidence is weak with regard to genotype-based PN advice. For future work, studies should test the impact of PN advice developed on a strong nutrigenetic evidence base, ensure an appropriate study design for the research question asked, and incorporate behaviour change techniques into the intervention.

Lessons on dietary biomarkers from twin studies.

Metabolomic and microbiome profiling are promising tools to identify biomarkers of food intake and health status. The individual's genetic makeup plays a significant role on health, metabolism, gut microbes and diet and twin studies provide unique opportunities to untangle gene-environment effects on complex phenotypes. This brief review discusses the value of twin studies in nutrition research with a particular focus on metabolomics and the gut microbiome. Although, the twin model is a powerful tool to segregate the genetic component, to date, very few studies combine the twin design and metabolomics/microbiome in nutritional sciences. Moreover, since the individual's diet has a strong influence on the microbiome composition and the gut microbiome is modifiable (60 % of microbiome diversity is due to the environment), future studies should target the microbiome via dietary interventions.

Nutrigenomics in the modern era.

The concept that interactions between nutrition and genetics determine phenotype was established by Garrod at the beginning of the 20th century through his ground-breaking work on inborn errors of metabolism. A century later, the science and technologies involved in sequencing of the human genome stimulated development of the scientific discipline which we now recognise as nutritional genomics (nutrigenomics). Much of the early hype around possible applications of this new science was unhelpful and raised expectations, which have not been realised as quickly as some would have hoped. However, major advances have been made in quantifying the contribution of genetic variation to a wide range of phenotypes and it is now clear that for nutrition-related phenotypes, such as obesity and common complex diseases, the genetic contribution made by SNP alone is often modest. There is much scope for innovative research to understand the roles of less well explored types of genomic structural variation, e.g. copy number variants, and of interactions between genotype and dietary factors, in phenotype determination. New tools and models, including stem cell-based approaches and genome editing, have huge potential to transform mechanistic nutrition research. Finally, the application of nutrigenomics research offers substantial potential to improve public health e.g. through the use of metabolomics approaches to identify novel biomarkers of food intake, which will lead to more objective and robust measures of dietary exposure. In addition, nutrigenomics may have applications in the development of personalised nutrition interventions, which may facilitate larger, more appropriate and sustained changes in eating (and other lifestyle) behaviours and help to reduce health inequalities.